Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses a Pantheon of Battles

Mesopotamian gods and goddesses are known from the literature of the Sumerian people, the oldest written language on our planet. Those stories were written down by city administrators whose jobs involved the upkeep of the religion, along with the upkeep of commerce and trade. It is likely that the stories first written about 3500 BCE reflect an older oral tradition, in fact, were written versions of ancient songs or oral recitations. How much older is speculation. Mesopotamia was an ancient civilization positioned between the Tigris River and the Euphrates River. Today, this area is known as Iraq. The Mesopotamian core mythology was a mixture of magic and entertainment, with words of wisdom, praise for individual heroes or kings, and magical tales. Scholars believe that the first writing of Mesopotamian myths and epics were mnemonic aids to help the reciter remember the important parts of a story. Entire myths werent written down until the 3rd millennium BCE when they became part of the curriculum for the Sumerian scribal schools. By Old Babylonian times (about 2000 BCE), the students had inadvertently built us multiple copies of the core text of the myths. Evolving Mythologies and Politics The names and characters of Mesopotamian gods and goddesses evolved over the millennia of the Mesopotamian civilization, leading to thousands of different gods and goddesses, only a few of which are listed here. That reflects the political reality of change brought about by costly battles. During the Sumerian (or Uruk and Early Dynastic periods, between 3500–2350 BCE), the Mesopotamian political structure was made up of largely independent city-states centered around Nippur or Uruk. The society shared the core myths, but each city-state had its own protecting gods or goddesses. At the onset of the following Akkadian period (2350–2200 BCE) Sargon the Great united ancient Mesopotamia under his capital at Akkad, with the city states now subject to that leadership. The Sumerian myths, like the language, continued to be taught in the scribal schools throughout the 2nd and 1st millennium BCE, and the Akkadians borrowed a lot of its myths from the Sumerians, but by Old Babylonian (2000–1600 BCE) times, the literature developed myths and epics of its own. The Battle of Old and Young Gods: Enuma Elish The myth which unites Mesopotamia and best describes the structure of the pantheon and the political upheaval is the Enuma Elish (1894–1595 BCE), a Babylonian creation story that describes the battle between the old and young gods. In the beginning, says the Enuma Elish, there was nothing but Apsu and Tiamat, mingling their waters together contentedly, a peaceful and quiet time characterized by rest and inertia. The younger gods came into being in that water, and they represented energy and activity. The younger gods gathered to dance, and doing so upset Tiamat. Her consort Apsu planned to attack and kill the younger gods to stop their noise-making. When the youngest of the gods, Ea (Enki in Sumerian) heard about the planned attack, he put a powerful sleeping spell on Apsu and then killed him in his sleep. In Eas temple in Babylon, the hero-god Marduk was born. At play, Marduk made noise again, disturbing Tiamat and the other old gods, who urged her to a final battle. She created a mighty army with a spearhead of monsters to kill the younger gods. But Marduk was awe-inspiring, and when Tiamats army saw him and understood that all of the younger gods supported him, they ran away. Tiamat stood fight and battled Marduk alone: Marduk loosed the winds against her, piercing her heart with an arrow and killing her. The Old Gods There are literally thousands of names of different gods in the Mesopotamian pantheon, as city-states adopted, redefined, and invented new gods and goddesses as needed.   Apsu (in Akkadian, Sumerian is Abzu)—the personification of the freshwater underworld ocean; begetter of the skies and earth, united with Tiamat at the beginning of timeTiamat (Akkadian word for sea)—primeval chaos; the personification of salt water and spouse of Apsu bearer of the skies and earth, also consort of KinguLahmu Lahamu—twin deities born from Apsu and TiamatAnshar Kishar—male and female principles, the twin horizons of sky and earth. Children of either Apsu and Tiamat or Lahmu and LahamuAnu (Akkadian) or An (in Sumerian meaning above or heaven)—the Mesopotamian sky god, father, and king of the gods, supreme god of the Sumerian pantheon, and city god of Uruk. Father of all the other gods, evil spirits, and demons, typically depicted in a headdress with hornsAntu, Antum, or Ki-ist—consort of Anu in Akkadian mythNinhursag (Aruru, Ninmah, Nintu, Mami, Belet-ili, Dingirmakh, Ninmakh, Nintur)—Mother of All Children, and city go ddess of Adab and Kishgoddess; she was the midwife of the gods,Mammetum—maker or mother of fateNammu—associated with water. Younger Gods The younger, noisier gods were the ones who created humankind, originally as a slave force to take over their duties. According to the oldest surviving legend, the Myth of Atrahasis, the younger gods originally had to toil for a living. They rebelled and went on strike. Enki suggested that the leader of the rebellious gods (Kingu) should be killed and humankind created from his flesh and blood mixed with clay to perform the duties shunned by the gods. But after Enki and Nitur (or Ninham) had created humans, they multiplied at such rate that the noise they made kept Enlil sleepless. Enlil sent the god of death Namtarto to cause a plague to diminish their numbers, but Attrahsis had human beings concentrate all worship and offerings on Namtar and the people were saved. Ellil (Enlil or Lord of the Air)—initially, leader of the pantheon, the god between heaven and earth where human activity took place, cult center in Nippur and made humanity activity his responsibility, god of the atmosphere and agricultureEa in Akkadian (Enki, Nudimmud)—god of the subterranean lake Apsu, from which all springs and rivers draw their water; said to have fixed national boundaries and assigned gods their roles; in Akkadian myth, Ea was the god of ritual purification, who is the father of MardukSin (Suen, Nannar or Nanna)—moon god, father of Shamash and Ishtar, city god of UrIshtar (Ishhara, Irnini, Sumerian Inanna)—goddess of sexual love, fertility, and war, Akkadian counterpart of the West Semite goddess Astarte, goddess of VenusShamash (Babbar, Utu)—sun god and part of astral triad of divinities (Shamash the sun, Sin the moon, and Ishtar the morning star)Ninlil—Enlils consort and a goddess of destiny, mother of the moon god Si n, city goddess at Nippur and Shuruppak, grain goddessNinurta (Ishkur, Asalluhe)—Sumerian god of rain and thunderstorms, city god of Bit Khakuru, chamberlain of the war godNinsun—Lady Wild Cow, city goddess of Kullab and the mother of DumuziMarduk—supplants other Babylonian deities to become central figure, the chief city god of Babylon and national god of Babylonia, the god of thunderstorms, had four divine dogs Snatcher, Seizer, He Got It, and He Howled; consort to ZarpanitumBel (Canaanite Baal—cleverest; sage of the godsAshur—city god of Ashur and the national god of Assyria and war, symbolized by a dragon and winged disk Chthonic Deities The word chthonic is a Greek word meaning of the earth, and in Mesopotamian scholarship, chthonic is used to refer to earth and underworld gods as opposed to sky gods. Chthonic gods are often fertility deities and often associated with mystery cults. Chthonic deities also include the demons, which first appear in Mesopotamian myths during the Old Babylonian period (2000–1600 BCE). They were restricted to the domain of incantations and were mostly depicted as outlaws, beings who attacked humans causing all kinds of diseases. A citizen could go to law courts against them and obtain judgments against them. Ereshkigal (Allatu, Lady of the Great Place)—supreme goddess of underworld, and wife or mother of Ninazu, sister to Ishtar/InannaBelit-tseri—tablet-scribe of the underworldNamtar(a)—the fate-cutter, herald of deathSumuqan—cattle godNergal (Erragal, Erra, Engidudu)—city god of Cuthah, underworld; hunter; god of war and plagueIrra—plague god, god of scorched earth and warEnmesharra—underworld godLamashtu—dread female demon who is also known as she who erasesNabu—patron god of writing and wisdom whose symbols were a stylus and a clay tabletNingizzia—guardian of the gate of heaven; a god of the underworldTammuz (Dumuzi, Dumuzi-Abzu)—both Sumerian god of vegetation, city goddess of Kinirsha, in Eridu viewed as male, the son of EnkiGizzida (Gishzida)—consort of Belili, doorkeeper of AnuNissaba (Nisaba)—cereal grain harvestDagan (Dagon)—West Semitic god of crop fertility and the underworld, fat her of BaalGeshtu-egod whose blood and intelligence are used by Mami to create man. Resources and Further Reading Hale V, editor. 2014. Mesopotamian Gods Goddesses. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing.Lambert WG. 1990. Ancient Mesopotamian Gods: Superstition, philosophy, theology. Revue de lhistoire des religions 207(2):115-130.Lurker M. 1984. A Dictionary of Gods, Goddesses, Devils, and Demons. London: Routledge.

The Flaws Of Arrogance In Oedipus Rex By Sophocles

Benjamin Whichcote once said, â€Å"None are so empty as those who are full of themselves.† The words ring true through the character Oedipus whose tragic flaw of arrogance brought his downfall. In his timeless play, Oedipus Rex, author Sophocles unflinchingly illuminates the haughtiness and hubris displayed by the hero Oedipus. Through his candid exploration of the ship/captain and light/dark motifs, Sophocles makes an effort to ultimately bring the reader to the realization that arrogance creates an illusion to the truth and the potential dangers such pride poses for both the guilty party and those for whom the arrogant are responsible. Oedipus’ extreme pride and arrogance created an illusion for himself in which he lived blind to the†¦show more content†¦His arrogance restricts Oedipus from accepting the reality of the prophecy, ignoring the gravity of the situation as well as his own responsibility and duty to his people. Oedipus’ failure to acknowledge his horrifying revelation of murdering his father and sleeping with his mother until the very end, oppressed both himself and his people. Lines 16-17 of Oedipus Rex state, â€Å"Thebes is tossed on a murdering sea, And cannot lift her head from the death surge.† The lines show the state in which Thebes resided, fell upon Oedipus’ shoulders as its leader. The people of Thebes suffered because of Oedipus’ failure to accept that he was the one for whom the prophecy was intended. His failure to see the truth of the prophecy directly resulted in the city of Thebes suffering from a plague. Sophocles uses the ship/captain motif s to represent the adversity the protagonist faces with his country, as a result of Oedipus’ own tragic flaw. Every bit of destruction was the fault of Oedipus unwilling to own up to his crimes. Furthermore, Sophocles’ exploration of the light and dark motifs to show the results of the character’s illusions. Oedipus’ misconception of himself is represented many times with the motif of light and darkness. After Oedipus finds out about the truth of the prophecy, he compares his punishment and suffering to the dark night. (Sophocles pg. 71) â€Å"O cloud of night, Never to be turned away: night coming on, I can not tell how: night like a shroud!† Failing toShow MoreRelatedThroughout most famous Greek literature, a great hero usually saves the day. In the story of900 Words   |  4 PagesIn the story of Oedipus though, the good man with one minor flaw goes through great pain. This pain in the play Oedipus Rex is the focal point for the whole play. Almost every aspect of the play builds up and foreshadows Oedipus’ fall from power, and entry into pain. Sophocles in his tragedy Oedipus Rex creates a mood of dramatic irony using the dualities o f sight and blindness, and light and darkness. 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Get Free Help About Ship Terms And Chartering

Question: Describe about the Ship Chartering. Answer: Introduction The shipping industry involves an activity called chartering. This activity in its simplest form involves a rental agreement where a charterer contracts to rent a ship from the ship owner. Depending on the type of charter and the type of ship involved in the rental agreement, the standard contract is called the charter party which requires specific details about the rate, duration and the terms which are decided by the ship owner and the charterer. The time charter refers to renting a ship for a fixed period of time. The general trend of chartering involves renting a ship for a specific number of voyages; however a time charter is hired for a specified number of days or period (Wijnolst and Waals 2011). Types of chartering The activity of chartering can be of different types which involve different types of charters. Thus, there are five popular types of charter namely the voyage charter, time charter, contract of Affreightment, trip time charter and bareboat charter. The Voyage charter is the most popular and involves renting a ship along with its crew for a voyage which starts from a load port till the discharge port. Under the voyage charter, the charter usually reimburses the ship owner for his services on per ton or lumpsum basis. Time charter is referred to the activity of renting a vessel for a specific time, instead of specific number of voyages. Under the time charter, the vessel owner manages the ship while the charterer decides the destination and the number of ports where the ship stops. The additional costs like fuel, commission and port charges are borne by the charterer. Contract of Affreightment is a rental contract very similar to voyage charter however under contract of Affreightment; the vessel owner agrees to carry a specific number of cargoes for a specific period on a pre-determined route. Trip time charter is similar to a time charter however a trip time charter is for a shorter trip and for a specified route (Morgan 2013). Bareboat charter is a rental agreement to hire a vessel where the complete possession and control of the vessel is transferred to the charterer and he takes both financial and legal responsibility of the vessel (Hoff et al 2010). Salient Features of Time Charter As stated above, a time charter is referred to renting a vessel for a specific time. There are many features of a time charter, some of which are stated as follows:- It is the responsibility of the vessel owner to provide a seaworthy vessel along with an efficient crew and master for the vessel to safety reach its final destination The activity such as loading, packing and discharging of cargo safety is the responsibility of the charterer (Coghlin et al 2014). The charterer has the authority to give the master of the vessel instructions about where and when the cargo needs to be shipped (Lindstad, Asbjrnslett and Strmman 2011). Additional costs like fuel, commission and port cost are to be borne by the charterer. There are two very popular types of time charters namely the Baltime and the New York Product Exchange (NYPE). The first one is considered very favorable for the ship owners while the later one favors charterers. The responsibility of a ship owner in Time Charter Contracts The primary responsibility of a ship owner in Time Charter contracts is proper description of the ship. The said description is required to be detailed. Under the time charter, the charterer take commercial employment of the ship which requires him to have knowledge of the commercial value of the ship, thus, a detailed description of the ship including details of its construction helps the charterer upgrade his knowledge (Weixia and Lindenbaum 2016). The next responsibility of a ship owner under the time charter contracts is of delivery of the ship. Under time charter contracts, sometimes a port is specified for deliver and sometimes an area is mentioned, thus, delivery always does not conclude the way decided and is determined by the charterer on a later date. Thus, if the vessel arrives too early, the charter is not obliged to take delivery till lay day and if it arrives too late, the charterer can cancel the agreement (Branch 2012). Another responsibility of the ship owner under time charter contract is to deliver the ship to the charterer in a good condition and guarantee its seaworthiness. The ship should satisfy the terms of the contract signed between ship owner and the charterer. This responsibility extends to maintain the ship in good condition during voyage. The responsibility of the ship-owner does not extend to always keep the ship free from issues throughout voyage but has the obligation to take quick actions and remedy defects as soon as they are brought to notice. The charterer can sue the ship-owner if the ship is not delivery in every possible way fit for cargo services (Chenya 2011). Under the time charter contract, the ship-owner bears the risk of delays unless the time charter contract has an exemption clause, which can exempt the ship owner if he established that the delay was due to an event mentioned in the exemption clause (Jansson 2012). Off Hire Clause of NYPE-93 Under the time charter clause, the charterer is obliged to bear the risk of delay, which requires the charterer to pay the hire price for all the days the ship is delayed unless the contract has any express term decided on the said matter. Thus, in most time charter contracts a hire-off clause is incorporated which clearly specifies when a charterer is exempted from paying the prices agreed for hiring the vessel (Kamwetu 2013). There are two types of hire-off clauses generally used in time charter contracts namely the net loss of time clause and period clause. The New York Produce Exchange (NYPE) and the Baltime form consist of the net loss of time clause. This clause makes the charterer deduct from the hire he is entitled to pay only if a list of qualifies off-hire events have caused the charterer to suffer some real loss of time in the entire duration of the voyage. Thus, there is no off-hire clause, unless some time is genuinely loss. Thus, the charterer is only permitted to decla re that a ship is off-hire when services offered by the vessel are delayed or interrupted. For example, if ship is loading cargos despite having engine failure, there is no loss of time (Goulielmos and Psifia 2016). The New York Product Exchange (NYPE) 93 is a charter form which is widely used for dry cargo charter under the time charter contracts. The NYPE 93 was issued by the Association of Ship Brokers and Agents (U.S.A) on 6 November 1913. Since its formation, the NYPE 93 form has been amended several times with last amendments on September 1993. The NYPE 93 is highly used in the commercial shipping industry and is recommended by the Baltic and International Maritime Council (BIMCO) and The Federation of National Associations of Ship Brokers and Agents (FONASBA) (Grammenos and Papapostolou 2012). The NYPE 93 form is in a form of a contract between the vessel owner and the charterer defining the details of the contract which includes party names, description of the ship, duration and many other terms which are usually incorporated in a shipping cartel contract. One of the important terms of a time charter contract is the Off-Hire clause which is most of the times included in the time charter contract (Baughen 2012). Thus, the off hire clause in the NYPE 93 form protects and favors the charterer exempting him from paying hire charges for any time that is lost due a list of events which are not under the control or with no fault on part of the charterer. Events leading to off-hire and remedies available to a Time Charter The off-hire clause in the NYPE 93 form details out a list of many events that lead to off hire including events that create loss of time due to deficiency, strike or shortage officers, crew or the port, damages arising out of breakdown of fire, machinery or engine. Loss of time also includes time lost due to arrest or detention of the ship excluding arrest or detention which is a result of any fault on part of the charterer or his employees and servants or detention by accidents of vessel or cargo unless they result from an inherent defect in the vessel, its quality and durability, dry-docking or painting bottoms of the vessel which disturbs the entire working of the vessel or for any similar reasons which prohibits the vessel to function its duties and work efficiently. In case of any of occurrence of any of the above mentioned events, the charter is exempted from paying hire rates from the occurrence of any loss of time (Kirkaldy 2012). Conclusion Thus, the time charter contracts are a type of a rental contract which a vessel owner and a charterer enter into for a specific period of time. The responsibilities of the vessel owner and the charterer depend upon the terms of the contract along with the type of charter contract and the type of ship. Thus, under the time charter contracts, an exemption clause called off hire is usually incorporated to protect the interest of the charterer. This off hire clause exempts a charterer from paying hire costs to the ship owner from the moment time is lost during a voyage without ant fault on part of the charterer, his employees and servants. Thus, the off hire clause in the NYPE 93 is highly recommended to serve the best interest of the charterer. Reference List Baughen, S., 2012.Shipping law. Routledge. Branch, A.E., 2012.Economics of shipping practice and management. Springer Science Business Media. Chenya, L., 2011. The Analysis on Off-Hire Clause of the Time Charter.Journal of the Postgraduate of Zhongnan University of Economics and Law,5, p.028. Coghlin, T., Baker, A., Kenny, J., Kimball, J. and Belknap, T., 2014.Time charters. CRC Press. Goulielmos, A.M. and Psifia, M., 2016. Shipping finance: time to follow a new track?.Maritime Policy Management,33(3), pp.301-320. Grammenos, C.T. and Papapostolou, N.C., 2012. US shipping initial public offerings: Do prospectus and market information matter?.Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review,48(1), pp.276-295. Hoff, A., Andersson, H., Christiansen, M., Hasle, G. and Lkketangen, A., 2010. Industrial aspects and literature survey: Fleet composition and routing.Computers Operations Research,37(12), pp.2041-2061. Jansson, J., 2012.Liner shipping economics. Springer Science Business Media. Kamwetu, M., 2013. The Off Hire Clause; a case of Any Other Cause?. Kirkaldy, A.W., 2012.British Shipping, Its History, Organisation and Importance. BoDBooks on Demand. Lindstad, H., Asbjrnslett, B.E. and Strmman, A.H., 2011. Reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and cost by shipping at lower speeds.Energy Policy,39(6), pp.3456-3464. Morgan, M., 2013.Have recent off-hire, war risk and piracy clauses improved the position of time charterers by distributing the risk of delay caused by pirate attacks on their time chartered vessels more equitably as between owner and time charterer?(Doctoral dissertation, University of Cape Town). Weixia, G. and Lindenbaum, J.A., 2016. NYPE 93 Arbitration Clause: Where Ends the Open-End, The.J. Mar. L. Com.,37, p.245. Wijnolst, N. and Waals, F., 2011.Shipping industry structure. Delft University Press.

The Catacombs And Christian Persecutions Essays - Catacombs

The Catacombs and Christian Persecutions The Catacombs and Christian Persecutions The catacombs are the ancient underground cemeteries used by the Christians and the Jewish people in Rome. The Christian catacombs began in the second century and the hollowing out continued until the first half of the fifth century. In the beginning they were only burial places, but later they gathered to celebrate their funeral rites, and the anniversaries of the saints and of the dead. During the persecutions the catacombs were used as places of momentary refuge for the celebration of the Eucharist. After the persecutions they became real shrines of the saints and held centuries of relics of Christians from all over the empire. In the first century, the Roman Christians did not have their own cemeteries. If they owned land then they would bury their relatives there, if they didn't they had to bury them in common cemeteries, the Pagans were also buried here. That is why Saint Peter was buried in the great public necropolis (city of the dead) on Vatican Hill, it was available to everybody. Saint Paul was also buried along the Via Ostiense, a section of the catacombs. In the first half of the second century the Christians started burying their dead underground, this is a result of donations. That is how the catacombs were founded. Many of them began and developed around family tombs whose owners, newly converted Christians, did not reserve them to the members of the family. They did open them up to their fellow people, showing the faith. As time went on and room started to run out in the catacombs, the catacombs grew larger by gifts and by the purchase of new properties, sometimes by the Church itself. With the edict of Milan announced by the emperors Constantine and Licinius in February 313, the Christians were no longer persecuted. They were free to practice their faith, to have places of worship, to build churches both inside and outside the city, and to buy plots of land without fear of seizure. Although the Christians had their freedom to worship any religion, the catacombs continued as regular cemeteries until the beginning of the fifth century. This is when the Church returned to burying only above ground or in the basilicas dedicated to important saints. When the barbarians came down to Rome, they completely destroyed a lot of monuments and demolished many places, including the catacombs. Powerless towards the destruction, the Popes ordered to remove the relics of the saints to the city churches, for security reasons. When the transfer of the relics was completed the catacombs were no longer visited. They were totally abandoned, except for the tombs of Saint Sebastian, Saint Lawrence and of Saint Pancratius. Over the course of time, landslides, rock movement, and vegetation hid the entrances to the other catacombs. The very traces of their existence were lost. During the late Middle Ages they didn't even know where they were. The Christian religion developed rapidly in Rome and all over the world past the 1st century. This was because it was original and suitable for all mankind to believe in. It was also due to the testimony of fervour; this was that the Christians expressed brotherly love and charity to everybody. The Roman authorities were at first unconcerned about the new religion, but soon the people showed themselves hostile to the authorities because the Christians refused to worship the ancient pagan deities of Rome, and also the emperor. The Christians were accused of disloyalty to their fatherland, atheism, hatred towards mankind, and also hidden crimes such as incest, infanticide and ritual cannibalism. Because of this they were held responsible for all natural disasters such as plagues, floods, famines, etc. The Christian religion was proclaimed strange and unlawful by most that's why it was outlawed and persecuted. It was considered the most dangerous enemy of Rome. The first three centuries constitute the age of Saints, which ended in 313 with the edict of Milan. At this time the emperors Constantine and Licinius gave freedom to the Church. The persecutions were not always continuous and universal, nor equally cruel and bloody. Periods of persecution were followed by periods of relative peace. Christians faced persecution with courage, a very large percentage with heroism, but they did not submit to it without resistance. They defended themselves with great strength by defeating the accusations of those crimes as being false and groundless and by producing the contents of their faith. Bibliography 1.) Celebrating Sacraments Joseph Stoutzenberger 2.) Church and State in Early Christianity, ca. 30-600 Hugo Rahner Translated by Leo Donald Advise 3.) The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity John McManners